The Paleo Diet, despite being ranked fairly poorly by U.S. News & World Report in comparison to other diet options, has gained immense popularity in the past few years. But the diet – which emphasizes fish, fruit and vegetables while excluding grain, dairy and processed food – is just one element of a Paleolithic lifestyle, which many people have also begun to adopt. The basic philosophy behind a Paleo lifestyle involves the idea that agriculture and industry have evolved much more quickly than the human body has, meaning that it’s likely more healthy for humans to adopt a lifestyle similar to our hunter-gatherer ancestors despite the technological advancements of the past few thousand years. Living this way impacts your diet, exercise habits, clothing choices, child rearing and bathing – just to name a few. Aside from the diet, Paleo bathing may be the trend that has caught on the most with the wider population.

Advantages of Dry Shampoo

Even if you’ve never heard of Paleolithic living, you’ve probably heard of dry shampoo. While it’s been around for years, the popularity of dry shampoo has increased in tandem with the popularity of the Paleo lifestyle, as they both encourage less frequent bathing. Dry shampoo works by cleaning the hair with non-detergent cleansers and natural oils, without requiring the use of water. Many people also use a homemade mix of apple cider vinegar and baking soda to achieve the same effect. The popularity of this technique has increased as a result of several celebrities such as Kim Kardashian revealing that they only wash their hair every five days or so.

The philosophy behind this is actually pretty sound. Just like your digestive tract needs certain bacteria to function correctly, your skin can benefit from having a healthy, balanced biome that isn’t stripped away by soap or deodorants. The natural oils in your skin and hair also serve to protect them and keep them healthy. There are several dry shampoos, such as Mother Dirt’s AO+ Mist, which claim to contain helpful bacteria that neutralize the smelly elements of sweat without disrupting your skin’s natural biome. Less time in a soapy shower may also be gentler on your scalp, leaving it better hydrated.

From a style perspective, many have found that certain hairstyles are easier to maintain when the hair hasn’t been washed in a few days and is naturally oily. According to the Wall Street Journal, many people believe their hair simply looks better with less washing, and the “unwashed” style is becoming more and more desirable. Not to mention, cutting down on showers and cleaning products such as shampoo and conditioner can save you a lot of time and money every month.

It’s Not For Everybody

Of course, not everybody buys into the idea that using dry shampoo and cutting down on showers will lead to healthier, better looking hair. According to some experts, dry shampoo works on hair but ignores the scalp, failing to truly remove dirt, dried sweat and dead skin cells. Not cleaning the scalp thoroughly could lead to irritation, flaking, itching, pimple-like lesions, or even worse, bacterial or fungal infections. Typical shampoo can also treat and control scalp issues such as dandruff, psoriasis and eczema.

If you’re a person who regularly uses hair products such as hairspray, gel or mousse, you’d likely have to weigh the importance of using those products against the benefits of dry shampoo. Dry shampoo simply cannot remove heavy hair products, and without washing them out on a regular basis, the hair can become brittle and prone to breaking.

Dry Shampoo: The Bottom Line

The only way to truly decide whether or not dry shampoo is for you is to give it a try and experiment with it. If you’re intrigued by the idea, there’s very little risk of harm in trying it out for a few weeks. Give it time and your hair will reflect whether or not the method is working – you may find that your hair is healthier than ever, or you might discover that your scalp itches too much or is simply too oily for comfort. Keep in mind that you don’t necessarily have to give up showering altogether to try it either. Simply using a shower cap can allow you to experiment with dry shampoo without diving completely into Paleo bathing habits that you may or may not be comfortable with trying.

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Binge drinking is defined in several different ways. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism defines binge drinking as “a pattern of drinking that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels to 0.08 g/dL.” They point out that it usually takes around five drinks for men and four drinks for women over a period of around two hours to be considered “binging.” The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration defines binge drinking as consuming “five or more alcoholic drinks on the same occasion on at least one day in the past 30 days.” Using the first definition, the CDC reports that one in six adults in the U.S. binge drinks around four times every month. College students, the group perhaps most notorious for binge drinking, only make up part of the problem – 70 percent of binge drinkers are over the age of 26. According to a new study, things are getting worse.

More Women Binge Drinking Increases Overall Rates

According to a new report published in the American Journal of Public Health, heavy drinking has risen by 17.2 percent in the U.S. between 2005 and 2012. Researchers point out that changing social norms are likely the cause of the increase, as more and more women are catching up to men when it comes to alcohol consumption. Between 2002 and 2012, the number of women who binge drink increased over seven times more than the rate for men. Interestingly, the nationwide rate for people who drink any alcohol did not change significantly during the ten-year analysis.

Researchers also discovered specific areas of the U.S. where binge drinking is more prevalent. The county with the highest rate of binge drinking in 2012, was Menominee Co., Wisconsin at a rate of 36 percent. This may be due to several cultural issues, not the least of which is the fact that many counties in Wisconsin have more bars than grocery stores. The county with the lowest rate of binge drinking was in Madison Co., Idaho at only six percent.

Plenty of Negative Health Effects

It’s common knowledge that binge drinking is detrimental to your health. Along with increasing the risk of developing high blood pressure, stroke and liver disease, too much alcohol can also lead to unintentional injuries, fetal alcohol disorders, unintended pregnancy, violence and sexually transmitted diseases. One study even suggests that binge drinking during adolescence or young adulthood can lead to persistent and permanent abnormalities in the function and structure of certain parts of the brain. It’s not just a health cost either – binge drinking was estimated to cost the U.S. $223.5 billion in the U.S. in 2006 as a result of health care, crime and lost productivity.

Binge Drinking: The Bottom Line

Researchers point to several reasons why binge drinking may be on the upswing, including a rise in hard liquor advertising, more affluence in certain areas such as San Francisco, and the fact that alcohol taxes have not gone up proportionately with the Consumer Price Index. If you or anybody you know has a problem with binge drinking, consider checking out these personal steps as your first course of action.

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For women over 40, bone health is a serous concern. According to the National Osteoporosis Foundation, 80 percent of the 10 million Americans who suffer from osteoporosis are female. Also, around half of all women over the age of 50 will break a bone due to osteoporosis at some point. It’s thought that bone loss is prevalent in older women due to a menopausal decrease in estrogen, which is known to protect bone health. Bone problems are so common that the chances of an older woman breaking her hip are equal to her risk of breast, ovarian and uterine cancer combined. It’s estimated that 1.5 million people, both men and women, suffer a fracture every year due to weak bones. The good news is that there are many steps that can be taken to promote bone health. The bad news is that older women who are also trying to lose weight could have a harder time preventing bone loss.

New Report Says Bone Loss Tied to Weight Loss

A new study appearing in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism involved 424 people whose ages ranged from 30 to 70. Around 60 percent of the participants were women, and all of them were considered overweight or obese when the study began. The men and women were randomly assigned to one of four different low-calorie diets in order to lose weight. To test the link between weight loss and bone loss, researchers measured the bone density of each participant’s hip and spine over the two-year period of dieting. By the end of the study, the men and women had lost 8 percent and 6.4 percent of their original body weight, respectively.

Although the men and women both lost a similar amount of weight, their bone densities ended up reacting in completely different ways. The women experienced bone density loss at the hip and spine while men experienced no change an the hip and an actual increase in spine density. Menopausal women who primarily lost belly fat were particularly prone to losing bone density. Loss of lean muscle mass was also linked to a drop in bone density. While women only lost 1 to 2 percent of their bone density during the study, the results may nonetheless be a catalyst for future research.

Preventing Bone Loss

For young women, promoting bone health means getting plenty of exercise, eating a well-balanced diet high in calcium and vitamin D, and avoiding smoking and drinking. High-impact, weight-bearing activities such as running, tennis, climbing stairs, dancing and jumping rope can be very effective. Other exercises that promote muscle strengthening, balance and posture can also help prevent bone issues later in life.

For menopausal or post-menopausal women, bone loss can be treated by taking certain medications or estrogen under a doctor’s supervision. Women at this age can also benefit from getting enough calcium and vitamin D. The easiest ways to get these is to consume dairy products, get a bit of sunlight (not too much) and take supplements. It should be noted, however, that milk in particular has not always proven to be beneficial for bone health.

Bone Health and Weight Loss: The Bottom Line

If you’re a menopausal woman who’s trying to lose weight, you should take whatever steps are necessary to prevent bone loss while doing so. Simply moving part of your exercise routine outdoors, continuing to eat some dairy products, and taking vitamin D supplements may help avoid losing bone density while you’re busy shedding pounds of fat.

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The popularity of cooking shows in the U.S. cannot be denied. According to a 2010 survey from Harris Interactive, 50 percent of Americans watch cooking shows on television either very often or at least occasionally. Also, 57 percent of those surveyed stated that they’ve purchased specific foods as a direct result of something seen on a cooking program. Newer research says the number of viewers could actually be much higher.

While some TV recipes can indeed be considered healthy, many famous chefs probably wouldn’t describe themselves as “health food specialists.” For example, Paula Deen, one of the most well-known TV chefs, is infamous for the high butter content in recipes like Paula’s Fried Butter Balls. At the same time, cooking from home instead of eating out has generally proven to be healthier overall. So are cooking shows good or bad for our waistlines?

Study Links Cooking Shows With Weight Gain

A new study, appearing in the journal Appetite, assessed the eating and television habits of 501 women aged 20 to 35. All of the study participants had their heights and weights measured in order to calculate their BMIs. Overall, it was found that women who watch cooking shows and often cook from scratch at home weighed an average of 11 pounds more than women who watch cooking shows but do not cook much from scratch. As the study puts it, the “doers” weighed an average of 164 pounds, while the “viewers” weighed an average of 153 pounds. Although the women also got cooking inspiration from YouTube, magazines, newspapers, dietitians, cooking blogs and other websites, no source of cooking information was found to be more influential and potentially fattening than TV cooking shows.

These findings go against the typical notion that cooking at home is healthier than going out or ordering food. At the same time, it must be understood that many cooking shows do not necessarily promise that their recipes will be healthy. Viewers must take into account that these shows are largely for entertainment – just because a respected chef uses three sticks of butter in a recipe on a TV show does not mean it’s an accepted practice to do so on a regular basis.

Eating Healthier at Home

So, if cooking at home doesn’t guarantee healthy preparation, would it be better to eat out more often? The answer is no, but it could take some changes in your cooking habits to ensure that at-home meals are as healthy as they could be. Two main things to look out for when preparing meals at home are portion size and ingredients. When it comes to specific ingredients, there are plenty of healthy substitutions that can be made. For example, if a recipe calls for heavy cream, you can try substituting evaporated skim milk or a combination of low-fat yogurt and low-fat, unsalted cottage cheese. For tons of great ideas about healthy food preparation, check out the AMA’s Healthy Cooking tips.

Cooking Shows: The Bottom Line

This study shows a link between watching cooking shows and cooking unhealthier meals. However, it does not prove that watching cooking shows directly causes a person to gain weight. Nevertheless, it might be best for anybody who enjoys watching cooking shows to refrain from making the programs’ featured recipes on a regular basis.

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Hot flashes are an annoying and potentially debilitating side effect of menopause and perimenopause. According to Menopause.org, around 75 percent of perimenopausal women experience hot flashes in the U.S. The exact cause of hot flashes isn’t really known – some believe they could be due to changes in circulation during middle age – but any menopausal woman knows exactly when she’s having one. They’re usually characterized by an intense feeling of warmth in the face and upper body. Nausea, anxiety, sweating, dizziness, headache, rapid heartbeat, and even breathing difficulty can also be present. These symptoms can lead to all sorts of poor quality of life issues such as sleep disturbances and sexual problems. It’s been generally thought that women experience hot flashes for six months to five years. According to a grim new study, however, that period is commonly much longer.

Longer-Lasting Treatments May Be Needed

The new study, which claims to be one of the largest of its kind, involved a 17-year review of just under 1,450 women. The median total length of time that all the women experienced hot flashes was found to be 7.4 years. While all women experience perimenopause at different ages and for different lengths of time, this is the first report to suggest that some women suffer from hot flashes for as long as 14 years.

This could definitely be seen as disheartening news to those currently suffering from hot flashes, but it may also be good news in one way: if you’re a woman who’s been suffering from hot flashes for years on end, it doesn’t necessarily mean that your condition is abnormal or indicative of a larger problem. At the same time, many will now argue that longer-lasting and more effective treatments should be explored as researchers continue to reveal perimenopause to be a longer period of time than previously thought.

Ethnicity and Age of Onset Play a Role

While the overall median duration for suffering from hot flashes was 7.4 years, the study showed that women of different ethnicities are affected in different ways. For example, the median duration for hot flashes was 6.5 years for non-Hispanic white women, as opposed to 5.4 years for Chinese women and 4.8 years for Japanese women. The median for women of Hispanic descent was 8.9 years, and African-American women had a distressing median of 10.1 years. Researchers are unclear about why these differences exist, but it’s thought that factors such as diet, genetics and childbearing histories could be coming into play.

In perhaps the cruelest twist to the research, it was found that the sooner a woman begins getting hot flashes, the longer they’ll last. High stress levels and lower levels of education also correlated with longer periods of hot flashes and night sweats.

Hot Flashes and Treatment: The Bottom Line

While this news is discouraging, there are currently several treatments and strategies that can help women cope with hot flashes. The FDA has approved low does of Paxil for hot flashes, and women who still get their period can take low-dose birth control. Hormone therapy is also an option for some women, but it does come with serious risks. In general, it’s recommended that perimenopausal women avoid smoking, sleep in a cool room, and dress in layers. If you notice that certain actions such as drinking coffee or eating spicy food brings on hot flashes, it’s best to avoid those activities as well.

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We’re now at the height of winter – temperatures are staying low, the days are at their shortest and the sky is most often just a sea of grey clouds. If this time of year tends to make you feel depressed, you’re not alone. According to the National Center for Biotechnology Information, around 14 percent of adults in the U.S. suffer from seasonal mood changes or “winter blues.” Six percent are thought to suffer from full-blown seasonal affective disorder (SAD). In addition to typical depression symptoms such as low energy, feelings of hopelessness, difficulty concentrating and irritability, seasonal affective disorder patients can suffer from weight gain, oversleeping and a feeling of heavy or “leaden” extremities. People who live farther north in the country are much more likely to suffer from SAD. Unfortunately, the causes of seasonal effective disorder aren’t widely understood.

Lack of Sunlight Could Be the Main Culprit

It’s possible for people who work office jobs in northern climates get very little sunlight exposure for days on end. It’s dark when you wake up, dark during your morning commute and dark as you go back home. It’s hard to say exactly how a lack of sunlight affects mood and mental focus, but it may have something to do with vitamin D. Vitamin D is produced by the body after being directly exposed to sunlight, and it’s essential for maintaining calcium levels in the body. This is why sufferers of seasonal affective disorder are also at risk for poor bone health. In addition, there is evidence that vitamin D can boost your immune system, prevent diabetes and even lower the risk of Alzheimer’s. As far as SAD is concerned, some people believe that vitamin D can help regulate brain chemicals such as melatonin and serotonin. This hasn’t been backed up by much research, however.

Sunlight also plays a part in sleep cycles. The body’s natural tendency to wake when it’s bright and sleep when it’s dark can become disrupted during the long nights and short, grey days of winter. Indeed, shift workers can be very prone to depression and insomnia for this reason.

Dealing with SAD

If a lack of sunlight and vitamin D really are the reasons for seasonal affective disorder, there are several strategies that can help combat the symptoms. Many people use “light boxes,” which are large lights that mimic sunlight. This light therapy is typically used in the morning for about 30 minutes in order to stimulate your natural circadian rhythm and sleep cycle.

Simply getting some exercise can also help with SAD. Exercise is well-known to help with depression symptoms, and you can get the benefits of sunlight exposure and vitamin D production if the exercise is performed outside. Talking a walk or run during your lunch break might be the best bet, as mornings and evenings are typically too dark this time of year to get any sun.

Maintaining a regular schedule can also help. Try eating meals at exactly the same time each day while also waking and sleeping at consistent times if possible. If all else fails, talk to your doctor about vitamin D supplements or antidepressant options. If possible, taking a vacation to a warm, sunny climate could also help.

Seasonal Affective Disorder: The Bottom Line

Seasonal affective disorder affects women almost four times as much as men, which is another aspect of the condition that is not widely understood. However, exercise, vitamin D supplements and sunlight (real or simulated) could go a long way towards fighting the symptoms of SAD, despite the relatively low amount of research done on their effectiveness.

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Weight loss, from a strictly scientific perspective, seems pretty straightforward: in order to lose weight, a person must burn more calories than they consume. Obviously, this means getting some exercise; however, it isn’t always this simple. If a person’s diet is poor, it will take exponentially more exercise to see any results. Now, a new study published in the The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research shows just how ineffective regular exercise without a diet plan could be. Not only can the exercise fail to produce results, it could also actually cause weight gain. Think about it: getting a whole bunch of exercise could technically cause you to become more hungry throughout the day. If you’re not watching your diet, you could end up overeating and negating any of the benefits the exercise provided. This study shows how bad it could be, depending on the person.

Study Focused on Women Exclusively

Researchers at Arizona State University found 81 female volunteers who were generally healthy but also lived sedentary lifestyles. The women were all considered overweight based on their BMIs, but some were heavier than others. The participants began a supervised exercise program that lasted 12 weeks, with three 30-minute sessions each week. The exercises performed were focused on aerobic endurance, and the workouts were taken at a pace that represented around 80 percent of the volunteers’ maximum endurance. It’s important to note that researchers told the women not to change their eating habits whatsoever.

When the 12-week period was over, the women were much more aerobically fit. However, a staggering 70 percent of them had actually gained weight. This wasn’t from building muscle either – the weight gain was due to increases in fat mass. Some women showed no change in weight, while others did shed some pounds. However, some of the women who experienced weight gain actually put on as much as 10 extra pounds during the study.

One Month Could Be The Cutoff for Assessing Effectiveness

Researchers believe that the weight gain was likely caused by overeating due to the sudden increase in physical activity. Some of the women may also have spent less time exercising outside of the aerobic sessions without necessarily intending to do so. Researchers noticed that the exercise had differing results regardless of a woman’s original weight. Perhaps the most interesting data they found, however, was that women who were losing weight after four weeks continued to do so while others that were not losing weight at that time ended up not experiencing weight loss at all. This suggests that if a diet and exercise program doesn’t start showing results in about a month, you may need to change something before you actually start losing weight.

Weight Gain And Exercise: The Bottom Line

Everybody is different. Exercise and diet plans that allow one person to lose weight might not work as well for someone else. However, one thing that’s always constant is the need to both diet and exercise. While some studies and products suggest otherwise, most health professionals would agree that both approaches are needed in order to lose weight. If you’re experiencing weight gain despite getting regular exercise, it’s time to seriously consider changing your eating habits.

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Every five years since 1980, the USDA and the HHS have jointly published the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. It’s an exhaustive document detailing the foods and serving sizes that Americans should consume in order to promote health, prevent disease and maintain a healthy weight. When it comes to milk consumption, the 2010 edition states that “recommended amounts are 3 cups per day of fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products for adults.” Drinking milk in this amount is thought to promote bone health and decrease the risk of fractures due to the amount of calcium milk provides. However, health professionals don’t always agree with this notion. For example, a Harvard School of Public Health report indicates that the jury is still out on the benefits of milk. Now, a new study is not only casting doubt on milk’s bone health effects, but it’s also showing that milk could do a lot of damage.

Milk Consumption Leads to Higher Fracture, Mortality Risk

The study, published by the BMJ and conducted by researchers in Sweden, used questionnaires to gather information from over 100,000 people. When the study began, the men were between the ages of 45 and 79, while the women were between the ages of 39 and 74. The study followed up with female volunteers after 20 years and male volunteers after 11 years. The questionnaires took note of the participants’ weight, height, marital statuses, education levels and lifestyles, as well as their consumption of common beverages and foods. It was found that the women who drank at least three glasses of milk per day were surprisingly more likely to suffer fractures and death. Avid female milk drinkers were:

• 16 percent more likely to fracture a bone
• 60 percent more likely to suffer a hip fracture
• 44 percent more likely to die of cancer
• 90 percent more likely to die of cardiovascular disease
• 93 percent more likely to die during the study

Drinking milk in the recommended amounts only caused men to be 10 percent likelier to die during the study. Also, avid milk-drinking men were found to be 16 percent more likely to get cardiovascular disease, and drinking milk had no effect on bone fracture or cancer rates.

What’s Wrong With Milk?

Researchers explain that the starling numbers could have something to do with lactose and galactose – two sugars that are often present in milk. Galactose in particular has been tied to aging processes such as oxidative stress and inflammation in animal tests. Indeed, people who drank lactose-free milk were found to be less at risk. Luckily for dairy lovers, cheese, yogurt, buttermilk and sour cream have far less lactose and galactose than typical milk does. If researchers are correct about these sugars causing health issues, it’s at least encouraging to know that cheese and yogurt could be safe.

Drinking Milk: The Bottom Line

In an accompanying editorial, a City University of New York School of Public Health professor admits that more research must be done before we can truly assess whether or not the sugars present in milk actually decrease bone health and lead to mortality instead of what’s generally been believed for years. Indeed, the questionnaire nature of the study could have led to skewed or dubious results. For now, the best course of action would be to talk with your doctor if you’re at all worried about getting the correct amount of calcium. There are many other healthy ways to get calcium in your diet apart from drinking milk.

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Anyone suffering from varicose veins knows how annoying and painful they can be. The twisted, enlarged veins often develop in the legs and feet, usually appearing as blue-green cords that bulge beneath the skin. Varicose veins are merely a cosmetic issue for many people. For others, however, the veins can cause pain, especially when standing or walking. While they’re rarely considered life-threatening, they are occasionally associated with complications including vein inflammation, venous eczema, blood clots, skin ulcers and leg swelling. Varicose veins aren’t uncommon either; in fact, according to the University of Maryland medical center, up to 60 percent of U.S. citizens suffer from them. Luckily, many varicose vein treatment options are available. But which ones are most effective? According to a new study, it might not make much of a difference.

Laser, Foam and Surgery All Work Well

The new study, published in the New England Journal of Medicine examined three of the most popular types of varicose vein treatments: endovenous laser ablation, ultrasound-guided foam sclerotherapy, and surgery. Researchers studied 798 people at 11 different facilities throughout the United Kingdom between November of 2008 and October of 2012. Each patients’ quality of life was assessed six months after their procedure. When it came to factors such as itchiness, swelling and pain, patients surprisingly reported nearly the same results regardless of the type of varicose vein treatment they received.

Of course, there were some differences in patient experience. For example, laser therapy was less likely to cause bruising or bleeding during the procedure. Also, patients that underwent foam injections reported slightly lower quality of life ratings. So, it would seem that laser therapy might be the overall best option. At the same time, researchers stated that the differences in quality were “minor” and not likely to have a large impact on the life of a patient.

How To Prevent Varicose Veins

Before varicose vein treatment becomes a necessity, there may be ways to ensure you don’t end up suffering from them. The veins typically form when tiny valves within them weaken, causing blood to succumb to gravity and flow backwards slightly instead of directly towards the heart. The condition is more prevalent in women, and they can be caused by a number of both preventable and non-preventable factors. For example, non-preventable risk factors for varicose veins include:

• Heredity or family history
• Hormonal changes caused by menopause, pregnancy, puberty or medicines containing estrogen
• Aging

On the other hand, there are some factors for developing varicose veins that people can do something about. They include:

• Obesity
• Sitting or standing for long periods of time

Basically, if you want to prevent varicose veins, you need to stay physically active. Walking or jogging even 30 minutes a day can have many positive effects on your health, especially if you’re getting older. This of course goes hand-in-hand with preventing obesity.

Varicose Vein Treatment: The Bottom Line

It seems that laser treatment may be slightly more effective than foam injections or surgery, but only marginally so. The study only examined patients after six months, however, so more research would definitely be helpful in determining which varicose vein treatment is best in the long run. As of now, patients might as well choose the most affordable option if they’re all going to be getting about the same results either way.

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Physicians often split heart disease risk factors into two categories: modifiable and non-modifiable. Non-modifiable risk factors include things that cannot be changed such as age, family history, ethnic origin and gender. On the other hand, modifiable factors represent things that a person generally has some control over. These factors can include hypertension, high cholesterol, physical inactivity, tobacco use, diabetes, poor diet, alcohol consumption, stress, ingesting certain medicines, and being poor (although some would argue that financial status is non-modifiable in certain parts of the world). According to a new report from the American Heart Association, it’s now thought that women and African Americans are more highly affected by the non-modifiable heart disease risk factors. Also, while the gender gap seems to be narrowing, the gap between races may be increasing.

Study Examined Thousands of People

Researchers looked at data for 13,541 individuals. Study participants were examined over four different periods: 1987-89, 1990-92, 1993-95 and 1996-98. At the time, participants were not suffering from cardiovascular disease and were aged 52-66. Over the next ten years, researchers examined how certain risk factors contributed to the development of cardiovascular disease. The risk factors studied included:

• Obesity
• High cholesterol
• Smoking
• Diabetes
• High blood pressure

Researchers used a metric known as population attributable risk (PAR) to show how the heart disease risk factors contributed to the chances of actually getting heat disease in different groups such as men, women, African Americans and whites. For example, the PAR for diabetes in women was .21, whereas the PAR for men was .14. This means that diabetes is more likely to contribute to cardiovascular disease in women than in men. For high blood pressure, women had a PAR of .32, while men had .19. African Americans had .36 and whites had .21.

The PAR for obesity stayed the same for all groups at .06. There was some good news in that the overall PAR for smoking changed from .15 to .13, while high cholesterol changed from .18 to .09. Researchers indicated that the drop in risk for smoking doesn’t necessarily mean that smoking is becoming less of a risk, however. Instead, it seems to indicate that fewer people are smoking. In fact, heart disease is a bigger risk for smokers overall, due to the fact that people who still smoke often carry other risk factors or smoke more heavily. The drop in PAR for high cholesterol is being partly attributed to raised awareness and more widespread treatments.

Overall, the combined PAR for all risk factors decreased for whites throughout the study, going from .56 to .48. The PAR for African Americans stayed at .67.

Heart Disease Risk Factors: The Bottom Line

What this study essentially means is that women and African Americans are more likely to get cardiovascular disease if controllable risk factors are not managed. According to lead author Susan Cheng, the results indicate that targeted and population-based approaches must be taken as part of the public health efforts to reduce risk. In the meantime, it’s especially important for women and African Americans to take action against diabetes and high blood pressure to prevent cardiovascular disease. The American Heart Association has websites that can help you precisely assess your risk for getting heart disease according to your blood pressure and the state of your diabetes.

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